In the life sciences, after completing a doctoral degree (PhD, MD, or both), the typical next step for trainees is a postdoctoral fellowship. This is a period (typically between four and six years) during which you conduct largely-independent research in a new lab. This can be considered a transition phase between early training and complete independence. It’s a chance to hone skills in a technical and/or intellectual area that may benefit you in whatever career path you choose — whether in academia, industry, publishing, or a different field.

Many students nearing the end of their degree process are still unsure what they’d like to do professionally. It’s important to remember that postdoctoral training is not a prerequisite for most careers in science! Postdoctoral salaries are usually modest (link: NIH pay scale for 2021), but many see this as a continuation of their education. While those with postdoctoral training may have an easier time entering the job market, the skills that you’ve gained during your graduate training can carry you very far — from industry jobs, such as working at a pharmaceutical company or a biotech, to consultant/analyst positions, writing/communications, science education, or even governmental/policy work. However, if you plan to stay in academia or aim to hone additional hands-on skills contributing to your career path, you will have to complete a postdoctoral fellowship, or even several. Deciding to go down this route can be challenging, but for many, it is well worth the effort.

You can do a postdoctoral fellowship in the same field as your doctoral degree, in a field that is complementary, or one that is completely different. It just depends on what you’re hoping to get out of it. It’s important to keep in mind that what you do as a postdoctoral fellow will most likely be the basis of your independent career as a Principal Investigator (PI), if you choose to stay in academia. Of note, many postdoctoral funding opportunities focused on training give a preference to students who choose to “step outside their comfort zone,” and not stay in the same field and/or institution (much more on that later).

Different people choose to go into postdoctoral training for different reasons. If your ultimate goal is to find a faculty position, you will need to show productivity (in the form of published work in peer-reviewed journals), you’ll need to have very strong recommendation letters (certainly from your advisor, but also from others, such as your department chair, other faculty members in the department, and/or collaborators), and a solid research plan for your independent group that is usually (but not always) a continuation of your postdoctoral work and always something both original and non-incremental. Often, individuals who are able to create new research tools/techniques or adapt existing ones to a new field are the ones who find it easiest to pivot their postdoctoral work to a new direction that their postdoctoral lab will likely not pursue once they leave. If your ultimate goal is to gain a skill or technique, you should focus on a lab that not only uses this tool, but is also primed to provide guidance — either by the PI or more senior postdocs in the lab. Please note that you would have to negotiate what you get to “take with you” from your postdoc lab and whether you would get a “grace period” before it competes with you on projects — this may vary greatly depending on context (size of postdoctoral lab, research focus similarity, generosity of PI, etc.).

Unfortunately, not all funding and fellowship opportunities are available to non-US citizens/permanent residents, such as most of those offered by the NIH (for example F32 and K01). However, many private funding agencies allow all nationalities to apply; these include the Helen Hay Whitney foundation, Damon Runyon, Jane Coffin Childs, and Life Sciences. The NIH K99 is also open to non-US citizens/permanent residents, and plenty of institutional postdoctoral funding opportunities are not restricted by nationality. Depending on your sponsor (institution/department/lab), international scholars may have to deal with an unstable visa status with a varied number of years associated with it. Furthermore, international scholar visas typically do not allow their holders to switch to a non-academic job, which means that students/postdocs may have to relocate to another country shortly after completing their training. Please consider reaching out to the institution’s international office to get more information before you make any decisions.

While we’re on the topic of financial considerations, another important aspect to be aware of is credit history. If you are new to the United States and do not have a proven record of income and of paying bills on time, it might be difficult for you to rent an apartment or obtain a credit card. Universities can help with both!

However, it’s important to be aware of this as you make arrangements for your move.

If you plan to get postdoctoral training, it’s helpful to actively think about potential options and preferences early. Nine to 12 months before your expected graduation date is a good time to start reaching out to labs, as many competitive labs have long waitlists; however, if you’re further along in your training, have no fear — a few months is also a reasonable amount of time to find a great postdoctoral position.

There are many different approaches to searching for a postdoctoral training opportunity.

Here are some ideas — you can:

Consider papers that you’ve read that really grabbed your attention. Most of your thinking will come from reading papers, and then discussing those papers with friends and colleagues. If you find the papers from a lab to be fascinating and compelling, it's likely that you would learn a lot from that lab, and you would find your work there to be satisfying.

Think about the “big questions” that fascinate you and look up labs that might be pursuing them.

Think about what you like and dislike about your thesis lab and find labs that would be a good fit.

Talk to your PI and/or postdocs in your current lab and ask them their thoughts;

If you find yourself attending seminars (in person or virtually), make a point of talking to people and asking them about their research and where they think the projects may be going.

Think about the geographic location in which you’d like—or at the very least wouldn’t mind—spending around five years of your life. Consider cost of living, caretaker resources, commute time/cost, and affordability.

It’s important to note that some labs (but not all) proactively advertise availability of postdoctoral positions (e.g., on Twitter, SfN job board, Higher Ed jobs, etc.). It’s often useful to check these platforms and message boards to see what opportunities might be available.

There’s no one right answer to this question. Larger labs may offer more resources, more experience (for PI as a mentor and the presence of skilled postdocs) and more name recognition (for collaborations and job searches). However, more often than not, bigger labs mean less 1-on-1 training and/or attention from the PI. Smaller labs usually operate on tighter budgets, but they may offer much more hands-on training and attention to each member of the team. Whichever you decide to pursue, just make sure it aligns with what you’d like to get out of the experience. It’s also important to check where lab alumni ended up. If academia is where you’d eventually want to stay, you should think about the pros and cons of different labs and be on the lookout for PIs who might be a good fit for you. For instance, a more established PI is more likely to have a track record of having postdocs get tenure-track positions. A new PI won’t have a track record, but can be a super choice and offer stellar mentoring. A mid-career PI may have a fairly short or spotty track record of placing alumni in tenure-track positions, but this should not be taken as evidence of poor training. The number of postdoctoral graduates from a mid-career PI's lab is likely to be pretty small (perhaps 10 or fewer), and it’s hard to draw strong conclusions from small datasets. This is a fair thing to discuss with potential PIs and their current lab members when you're interviewing! It’s important to get a sense of what the PI's philosophy or plans are for helping senior postdocs with whatever their next step will be.

Some people are very selective in their research interests, others are more exploratory and open to studying something totally different. Either way, it is advisable to reach out to at least 3-4 labs as not all groups will have open positions or be a good fit. As for focus, consider labs somewhat related to your PhD expertise but also don’t be afraid to explore new fields in which your expertise would be a rare advantage.

You do not need to have a paper published before you reach out to labs to inquire about postdoctoral training. You do, however, need to have a clear “story” to tell; it can still have some loose ends (for instance, the last experiment is still ongoing, or you are waiting on a collaborator to add their piece), but the story needs to have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Your goal is to be able to convincingly claim that you accomplished something interesting and important. Most PIs understand that publishing a manuscript is a long process, and many postdoctoral fellows only see their graduate work published after they begin their postdoctoral training. The one thing you would certainly need to produce is a recommendation/reference from your graduate advisor, who is the best source of information about you as a developing scientist. If for any reason, procuring a letter of recommendation from your advisor is problematic, or if you think that the recommendation might not be positive, have an honest discussion about it with your PI. Despite differences of opinions or bad experiences, most advisors would like to see their trainees succeed, and it's worthwhile trying to have that conversation. However, if this is not possible, it's not the end of the world. Be sure to communicate the situation in your application or cover letter. Be upfront about it and shy away from speaking ill of your advisor; instead, focus on what you are hoping to get out of your next stage of training. It would also be important to get a letter of support from someone on your advisory committee who can vouch for you. The prospective postdoc PI will likely still reach out to your advisor, but people understand that sometimes personalities don’t mesh well and that’s ok.

Talking to your PI about leaving can often seem like an uncomfortable conversation. It doesn’t have to be! Most PIs are delighted to see their students getting ready for the next step in their careers. Of course, some disagreement may arise with respect to timelines, but ultimately, all graduate students move on, and having early conversations with your PI (especially ones in which you seek advice) can help pave the way for alignment of expectations and thus a smoother transition. Don’t forget that your thesis committee, which is monitoring your scientific progress, is there to help you and can also be a somewhat more objective arbiter of when it might be time to start talking about the next step in your training. Do not hesitate to lean on them for guidance, especially if you feel that there are certain conflicts that you and your PI are not able to resolve by yourselves

Typically, the first step would be a Zoom conversation with the PI. If this goes well, you will be invited to present your graduate thesis work to the entire lab (either via Zoom or in person), followed by a Q&A session. After the formal presentation, you will have time to speak with members of the lab 1-on-1 (again, either over Zoom or in person), and the interview session will usually conclude with the PI, who will have had a chance to get some feedback from the lab and discuss whether or not this might be a good fit.

Don’t forget — this is a two-way process — this isn’t just about making a good impression, but rather about finding a good match; the lab is assessing you and you’re assessing them.

Whether in person or over Zoom, remember that no one knows about your specific research better than you do. Your presentation should be tailored to your audience — if this is a lab that does similar work, perhaps the introduction into the field doesn't need to be quite as long as for other groups (and it would be good to cite/reference their work whenever possible). Practice your presentation multiple times in front of different scientifically-minded audience members, incorporate feedback, and be prepared to address a wide spectrum of questions: from “what concentration of formaldehyde did you use to fix the samples?” to “could your observations also be explained by a different underlying process?”. It’s also likely that you will be asked about your career aspirations once you finish the postdoctoral training, so be prepared to discuss this, even if you still don’t know.

A few important “presentation Do’s”:

DO know the literature well, especially as it pertains to the expertise of the lab

DO stick to the allotted time (unless instructed otherwise)

DO wear professional attire (such as a collared shirt) even if it’s a Zoom presentation

DO admit when you don’t know the answer to a question and try to give it your best guess

DO acknowledge the contributions of others to your work (published or otherwise)

DO provide references at the bottom of your slides to all presented data (written or otherwise)

DO keep your slides “clean,” not too wordy, and make sure slide titles summarize the key point the slide is making (for instance, use “Ubiquitination Is MAPK-Dependent” over “MAPK Pathway”)

Ask yourself: can I imagine myself being happy here? Do the lab members seem happy? What sort of lab culture exists here? How independent are people expected/allowed to be? Do people in the lab seem more collaborative or more competitive with each other?

You shouldn’t be afraid to ask members of the lab (especially current trainees!) questions about their own experience with the lab and the PI. More often than not, people will be honest and share their opinions with you, but keep in mind that each person’s experience is anecdotal, and you should be on the lookout for themes — both negative and positive — in the feedback that people provide.

You should also consider whether the greater environment is one in which you would be happy — weather, big city vs. small college town — would it be affordable on a postdoctoral salary? Do you feel like there is adequate representation of your identities within the lab/department/institution? If not, why? If you’re a member of an underrepresented group in the sciences, it would also be important to know whether the PI has any experience offering mentorship to individuals from your community. If so, perhaps talking to them could provide important insights.

Different PIs have different mentoring styles, and you should figure out what it is that works for you, and what being in the lab would feel like. Start with what you know — what sort of style does your PhD advisor have? Has that been working well for you? Either way, important questions to consider are: (1) is the PI excited about the science and specifically how you and your expertise would fit in? (2) are they dedicated to their trainees and make themselves available? (3) are they generally supportive of current and past trainees? (encourages them to explore interests outside of the lab, goes above and beyond to provide recommendations, etc.)

Although not required, it is customary to send Thank You emails to all the people with whom you met during the interview process (even if you decide not to join the lab after all). The email should be sent no more than 48 hours after the interview and be short — no more than 2-4 sentences. Be sure to include any follow-up that was discussed (“here’s a link to the paper I mentioned” etc.). It’s always nice to make sure that the message isn’t too generic.